Abstract

This paper aims to assist instructors in informing students of various aspects involved with learning translation and interpretation in a university setting. Because such courses rarely last beyond one or two semesters, many students enroll in such classes with erroneous assumptions about course content and unrealistic expectations about what they can accomplish. The author presents ten concepts that ideally should be presented to and understood by students prior to their enrolling in a university translation or interpretation class so that they may be both realistic and productive in their learning goals.

n this modern age of web pages written in dozens of languages and instant messaging carried out across the planet between people of different ethnic and cultural backgrounds, it behooves institutions of higher education to provide courses on translation and interpretation (hereafter, T/I) to spur global-level thinking. For foreign language majors, such classes are important, and one may even dare say that they are indispensable. Although some authors loudly lament the lack of universities and other institutions providing such courses (Balupuri, 1997; Gentzler, 2001), others have noted the recent turnaround concerning the reputation of T/I as an instructional tool. Where such instruction was once associated with outdated methodologies of language learning and eventually fell into disfavor, T/I are now seen as valid literary pursuits and are even encouraged in second or foreign language learning contexts if used appropriately and with the proper understanding (Maier, 1998; Nae, 2004).

Even if T/I courses are offered as part of the regular curriculum, universities and instructors must continually overcome a diverse range of obstacles in order to provide even the minimal standard of educational excellence. One such obstacle, which is rarely if ever mentioned, can be found in the mismatch between students' expectations of what is taught in such courses and what the students can realistically achieve. All too often, students enroll in T/I courses with too many assumptions about how to conduct T/I and what it means to learn about T/I. In many cases, these assumptions turn out to be false. Universities are not professional translation or interpretation schools. Regardless of how experienced the instructor or how well planned the syllabus, there will always be limits to what and how much instructors can teach and, by extension, what and how much students can learn, especially under the restrictions imposed by courses spanning only one or two semesters.

Because of time and other limitations (see Cordero, 1984), it would be most beneficial if students were aware of several concepts prior to their enrollment in T/I classes. Providing these concepts to students is not meant to discourage them from enrolling in such classes, nor are they meant to reduce students' enthusiasm to learn. Rather, knowing and understanding these concepts can hopefully provide students the proper perspective concerning what it means to engage in T/I study at university and what would be required of students in such courses in terms of effort and perspective.

The responsibilities of the instructors in their teaching of such courses has been outlined elsewhere (Cote, 1990; Newmark, 1991), but it is the purpose of this paper to explain what should be one of the initial responsibilities of the institution and the T/I instructor: explicating to potential students who have an interest in T/I what is actually involved with the courses and the process of conducting T/I. Via university T/I courses, students should gain the following in this order: (a) an understanding from the very outset regarding the difficulties and responsibilities of those who conduct T/I and the necessary perspective to conduct T/I in classes in a university setting, and (b) an experience of the T/I process and a richer understanding of T/I activities and requirements. Just as a one-semester course on the works of Shakespeare cannot make an English language scholar out of students, neither can a one-semester course turn students into translators or interpreters.

In response to this perceived need to instruct students prior to their enrollment in T/I courses, I have put together the following ten concepts (see Appendix for the list of concepts). As they originated mainly from personal experience in teaching T/I, they are presented only as suggestions. While they are not all inclusive, they are interrelated. These concepts may of course be provided to students currently enrolled in T/I courses, for they could still prove valuable to the struggling T/I student, but it is hoped that if students are presented with this information prior to enrollment (or at least during the first T/I lesson of the semester), they will have a better perspective of what is involved in conducting T/I, the role of their T/I course in their education, and their own role in learning.

While it is quite possible for students to grasp a working knowledge of various T/I techniques even after just one semester of study at university, this knowledge will likely only be superficial. Many students unfortunately enroll in T/I courses expecting (unrealistically) to emerge after one semester or one year of study with the skills to do professional T/I. Professional translators and interpreters have undergone the necessary training and accumulated experience to understand the many underlying requirements behind T/I, including the need for the proper computer equipment (Chriss, 2000; Ward, 1992) in the case of translation work and for physical stamina (Balupuri, 1997) in the case of interpretation work. Students at university will have little time to gain an appreciation of these requirements. If the students' unrealistic expectations are not tempered into realistic ones in a timely manner, those expectations will not be met, thereby causing frustration directed at the course, the instructor, and themselves.

Students may not initially appreciate the need to begin their T/I studies by gaining a sound knowledge of the source and target languages, not to mention the socio-economic, cultural, and political backgrounds behind the languages in question (Balupuri, 1997). Cote (1990) relays two goals for the principal objectives to an introductory course on translation, which are similar and equally valid for an introductory interpretation course:

1. Provide an opportunity to develop skills through practice.
2. Acquaint students with the fundamentals involved in the translation (or interpretation) process.

Neither is more important than the other. However, it should be emphasized that one major aim of any introductory T/I course is meant to acquaint students with T/I fundamentals. One may even argue that unless students' majors are translation or interpretation, all they can ever hope to do is become acquainted with T/I.

Concept 2: Translators and interpreters need to be strong in body and mind.

It can take some time and effort on the part of the instructor to convince the students of this second concept. Students often enroll for and attend T/I lessons expecting to do typical class activities (e.g., in-class assignments, homework, etc.). It is not uncommon for them to believe that the only prerequisite for conducting T/I is a knowledge of a foreign or second language (i.e., the language they are studying at university or have studied previously). It may take a considerable amount of persuasion to convince students that T/I requires a deep commitment on the part of the translator or interpreter, that translations are not completed by a simple, straightforward process, and that interpretation is anything but a matter of listening to one language and reproducing the message in another.

It therefore becomes necessary to tell the students that T/I requires strength in body as well as mental fortitude. To convey this message, I like to use the story of the plight of an acquaintance's Romanian friend who worked as a company secretary and who, being bilingual, was asked to do some impromptu Romanian-English interpretation work for visiting Romanian businessmen. The secretary's day of translating began at 8:00 and did not conclude until almost midnight. The next day she was absolutely exhausted and became upset when she discovered that her coworkers envied her "day off," for they thought that because she was bilingual, her speaking two languages was an easy thing for her to do. The secretary had to convince her colleagues that what she went though was both mentally and physically draining and was much more difficult than a typical day of work.

Being the interpreter, the Romanian secretary had to be available to listen to everything the native speakers of one language had to say, mentally translate it, and then produce it in the other language. Needless to say, as the only interpreter between the two groups, she had to be on hand nearly every minute the two groups were in contact with each other. She had to keep on her mental toes the entire time, thinking of appropriate phrases and words, and she had to concentrate in order to understand the meaning behind what was being said in order to translate it effectively. Additionally, she had to clearly articulate the messages from one group as she translated them for the other, and she could not just stop interpreting to take a break to catch her breath. She could not even take a trip to the restroom unless there happened to be a convenient break in the discussions!

As it turned out, the secretary had eaten almost nothing the entire day, as much of the conversation between the groups happened during gatherings at lunch and dinner. To have food in her mouth meant she could not speak and could therefore not interpret. She was often forced to watch others eat while she continued interpreting. No wonder the poor secretary was exhausted and upset with her coworkers! This story exemplifies the need for mental concentration as well as physical effort when conducting interpretation. Even sitting at a desk looking up terms in a dictionary for translation purposes requires a significant amount of energy.

To aid in getting across this concept of needing strength to the students, it may be beneficial to provide a list of the respective mind/body requirements for T/I. Researchers into T/I methods do not ignore explaining various requirements (Massoud, 1988; Ward, 1992), and for the most part they agree with each other as to what is necessary. Balupuri (1997) considers simultaneous interpreting (SI) to be the most extreme form of T/I because of the demands on the people involved and thus provides an excellent list of what is needed to do SI. Such skills are necessary (a) if one ever hopes to do SI, and (b) anything below the level of SI still requires all of these things to a relatively high degree. Balupuri advises one to have a good memory, good organizational skills, and be prepared for fatigue and stress. This list, which I have divided into mind/body requirements, also includes the following:

MIND:

1. A perfect knowledge of the source and target languages
2. Background knowledge of the country/countries where a language is spoken
3. Excellent memory (especially short-term memory)
4. Quick reaction
5. Anticipatory skills
6. Erudition

BODY:

1. Voice
2. Clear diction
3. Physical strength

A translator or interpreter also constantly strives to improve his or her understanding and usage of both languages. He or she must also realize that physical strength (listed under the BODY category above) may actually be one of the most important factors in interpretation, as fatigue "affects the sound, the precision and the speed of translation, which in turn tells upon the quality of translation resulting in the loss of information" (p. 34). Additionally, one should be organized and capable of self-control, which should be read as capable of dealing with stress, something that can also adversely affect one's physical condition.

Many of the skills listed above are just as applicable to translation as they are to interpretation. For instance, translation requires one to concentrate and stay focused for long periods of time as well as constantly look to different reference sources like dictionaries, technical manuals, and even past translations in order to construct the best translation possible. Massoud (1988) insists good translators also be good writers, for being agile in a literary capacity, coupled with an adroit mind enables translators "to spot (from among three or four possibilities) the most effective way of conveying the correct meaning. Only then will translators succeed in their task and become communicators" (p. 17).

Being able to read and write in the source and target languages is a prerequisite for T/I, but such skills can hardly be considered sufficient. Certainly, a good translator or interpreter need not be perfectly adept in all four skill areas of both languages. As Ward (1992) states, native fluency in the source language is not needed except for special areas. Nevertheless, all too often, the uninformed equate knowledge of a language (however superficial) to T/I ability. Knowing a language does not bestow automatic qualification on a person to be a translator or an interpreter. Even the Romanian secretary in the example story above may not have been truly prepared to interpret for a day.

That knowledge of a language does not necessarily make a translator or interpreter comes as both good and bad news for students. On the positive side, the instructor should not expect students to be proficient at the foreign or second language. Relatedly, students should not expect to have perfect command of the other language upon enrollment in a T/I course. Only those students wishing to attend professional translator schools will be expected to have already attained a high level of proficiency in the other language (Cordero, 1984), which is not the case for the brief courses provided by most universities.

On the negative side, students may be overly confident in their own foreign language ability. They may try to count their years of English study or even trips abroad as indications that they are ready to conduct T/I. A person's perspective and frame of mind can partially dictate if a person is ready to conduct T/I. The reasons outlined in Concept 2 above notwithstanding, having knowledge of a language does not automatically mean one is prepared to engage in T/I, nor does it mean the person will be good at such activities. All it means is that a prerequisite has been met.

Students may take heart in the fact that they have likely been doing translations since they first began studying English. There is often reliance placed on mental translation by language learners, which is important from a developmental perspective (Kern, 1994) as well as a language ability assessment tool, especially in Japan (Buck, 1992).

This concept follows from Concept 3 above. T/I ability does not arise directly from language learning, nor can it be said that conducting T/I is necessarily the next logical step after one has learned and practiced using another language. There is little doubt of the overlap between language learning and conducting T/I, but each uses their own methodologies (Maier, 1998). T/I is best done within the framework of constantly learning and adding skills, not just the application of current knowledge.

Instructors must impress upon potential students that one must be willing to continually learn new things in a variety of fields. Ward (1992) lists as his fifth of seven necessary skills for T/I "an elementary knowledge of, interest in and ability to learn rapidly the basics of a wide variety of technical fields and their vocabularies in all the languages with which one works even though one has no experience in these fields" (p. 579). It is not possible to expect to simply use the language ability one possesses to conduct T/I. It becomes a matter of adding and refining knowledge, including vocabulary and the four language skills.

It is simply unfortunate that the nature of translation and its function in language learning has for so long gone unspecified (Cordero, 1984). Students wishing to "kill two birds with one stone" as it were by taking an interpretation class are probably mistaken. For instance, t